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Weimar paramilitary groups

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Recruiting poster for the Freikorps Lützow: "Who will save the Fatherland? That is Lützow's wild, daring pursuit. German men! Soldiers of all weapons! Join our ranks!"

Weimar paramilitary groups were militarily organized units that were formed outside of the regular German Army following the defeat of the German Empire in World War I. The most prominent of them, the Freikorps, were combat units that were supported by the German government and used to suppress uprisings from both the Left and the Right. There were also Citizens' Defense (Einwohnerwehr) groups to maintain public order[1] and paramilitary groups associated with specific political parties to protect and promote their interests.[2]

Most who volunteered for the paramilitary groups came from the 6 million German soldiers[3] who returned from the war to a country in the midst of the turmoil of the German revolution, which overthrew the Hohenzollern monarchy and established the Weimar Republic. The Freikorps especially took part in significant fighting in the Baltics, Silesia, Berlin during the Spartacist uprising and the Ruhr during the 1920 uprising there.[2] The paramilitary groups as a whole contributed significantly to the remilitarization of Germany between the wars.[4]

The Citizens' Defense groups were disbanded in 1920 and the Freikorps in 1921 because the government came to see them as threats and because of pressure from the Allies, who feared that the paramilitary groups were being used to circumvent the 100,000 man limit on the German Army imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.[2][5] The paramilitary groups connected with political parties lasted throughout the life of the Weimar Republic and in the case of the Nazi Party's Sturmabteilung (SA), beyond its end.

Freikorps

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Main article: Freikorps
The Guards Cavalry Rifle Division (Garde-Kavallerie-Schützen-Division), a major Freikorps unit, enters Munich after crushing the Munich Soviet Republic.

In the aftermath of World War I and during the German revolution of 1918–1919, Freikorps units consisting largely of World War I veterans were raised as paramilitary militias. They were armed with the rifles they had returned with from the front; infantry and cavalry units also had machine guns and mortars.[6] While exact numbers are difficult to determine, it is estimated that some 500,000 men were formal Freikorps members with another 1.5 million participating informally.[7]

In the early days of the German revolution, the Council of the People's Deputies, the revolutionary government led by Friedrich Ebert of the Social Democratic Party, needed reliable troops in Berlin to protect its position. In consultation with the Army High Command (OHL), the Council reached an agreement to form the voluntary Freikorps units. Most of their members were anti-communist monarchists who saw no clear future in the revolutionary Germany that they had returned home to. They did not fight in support of the revolutionary government or the Weimar Republic after it was formed, but against its enemies from the political left, who they saw as Germany's enemies.[6]

Freikorps units suppressed the Marxist Spartacist uprising and were responsible for the extrajudicial executions of revolutionary communist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg on 15 January 1919.[8] The Freikorps also fought in the Baltic against Soviet Russia and were instrumental in putting down the Munich Soviet Republic, the Ruhr uprising and the Third Silesian uprising. The Kapp Putsch of March 1920, a failed attempt to overthrow the government of the Weimar Republic, drew its military support from the Freikorps, in particular the Marinebrigade Ehrhardt. It was after the failure of the Kapp Putsch, and under Allied pressure to keep both Germany's official and unofficial military forces at the 100,000 man limit, that the Freikorps were officially disbanded in the spring of 1920. Some Freikorps members were then accepted into the Reichswehr, Germany's official army, but more joined the Nazi Stormtroopers (SA), illegal far right formations such as the Organisation Consul, or groups such as the Stahlhelm that were associated with political parties.[6]

Freikorps units

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For a list of major Freikorps units during the Weimar era, see Freikorps groups and divisions.

Citizens' Defense

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Main article: Citizens' Defense
Celebration in 1920 of the Citizens' Defense forces at Munich's Königsplatz

The Citizens' Defense paramilitary groups were voluntary, honorary associations based on part-time membership that performed self-protection tasks in local areas. They emerged in 1918 after the end of the First World War to ensure the maintenance of public order in cooperation with state authorities.[1] After the Spartacist uprising in Berlin in January 1919, the Reichswehr Ministry instructed all general commands on 22 March 1919 to develop local militia groups into centrally controlled citizens' defense groups at the state level according to a uniform model. The newly created units were then to be directly subordinate to the Reichswehr leadership. In an emergency the citizens' defense forces were to serve as an army reserve.[9]

Instead of becoming a pillar of support for the parliamentary system, some of the citizens' defense forces developed into anti-republican groups that were largely outside the control of the government and thus a threat to the Republic. As a result of the Allied disarmament requirements, the Citizens' Defense forces at Reich level were released from their military subordination and placed under the control of the individual state ministries. The Allies continued to regard them as a military reserve formation that was to be disbanded in accordance with the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. After the failed Kapp Putsch, the Prussian minister of the Interior ordered the dissolution of the Citizens' Defense groups. His order was followed by the other states in the summer of 1920. Only Bavaria, where the groups had been most active, refused to disband its forces and kept them alive for another year.[10]

Groups affiliated with political parties

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Right-wing

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Der Stahlhelm propaganda car in Berlin promoting DNVP nominee Theodor Duesterberg for president of Germany in the 1932 election. The message on the truck reads: "Whoever wants a true people's community votes for Duesterberg, the German man".
  • Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten (The Steel Helmet, League of Front-Line Soldiers), was officially a veterans' organization with about 500,000 members. Led by Franz Seldte and with ties at the leadership level to the Reichswehr, it was opposed to the Weimar Republic and politically close to the German National People's Party (DNVP) and other conservative groups. In 1931 it formed part of the Harzburg Front, an anti-democratic political alliance that included the Nazi Party. In 1934 it was integrated into the SA and dissolved in 1935.[11]
  • Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutzbund (German Nationalist Protection and Defiance Federation) was an antisemitic völkisch group led by Alfred Roth. Its membership peaked at about 200,000 when it was banned by the German government in 1922. It was notable for its revisionist propaganda regarding Germany's defeat in World War I and for attacking Jews, Social Democrats and middle-class supporters of the Republic.[12]
  • Sturmabteilung (SA; English "Storm Division") was formed by Adolf Hitler in 1921, with most of its members coming from the Freikorps. As part of the Nazi Party, it protected its meetings, marched in its rallies and was often involved in street violence against members of the political left. Led by Ernst Röhm beginning in 1931, it had an estimated 2,000,000 members when Hitler became German chancellor.[13]
  • Kampfbund (Battle League) was a Bavarian umbrella group involving the SA, the Freikorps Oberland and the Bund Reichskriegsflagge (Imperial War Flag Society). It was created on 1 September 1923 to consolidate and streamline their agendas after the government in Berlin called off passive resistance to the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr. It planned and conducted the Beer Hall Putsch and disbanded after it failed.[14]

Center to center-left

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  • Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold (Reich Banner Black-Red-Gold) was devoted to the defense of the Weimar Republic. It was founded by former front-line soldiers of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (who made up the majority of the group), the German Democratic Party and the Catholic Centre Party. Organized militarily, its main opponents were the Nazi SA and the Communist Party of Germany's Roter Frontkämpferbund. The Reichsbanner claimed more than three million members at its peak and was banned by the Nazis in 1933.[15][16]
  • Eiserne Front (Iron Front) brought together the Reichsbanner, free labor unions and workers' gymnastics and sports associations in 1931 in response to the far right's Harzburg Front. Not itself organized as a paramilitary, the Iron Front's central goal was to strengthen the Social Democrats in the 1932 Reichstag election.[17]
  • Jungdeutscher Orden (Young German Order) was a nationalist and antisemitic association founded by Artur Mahraun. Initially a paramilitary, it changed into a more politically oriented group with the goal of recreating the camaraderie experienced by soldiers at the front during World War I in order to overcome class and social differences in German society. In 1930, its political arm merged with the liberal German Democratic Party to form the short-lived German State Party. The Young German Order was banned by the Nazis in 1933.[18]

Left-wing

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Assembly of the Communist Party's Roter Frontkämpferbund at the Berlin Cathedral in 1928

Similar organisations existed in the First Austrian Republic, most notably the Schutzbund and the Heimwehr.

See also

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References

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Notes

  1. ^ a b Bucher, Peter (January 1971). "Zur Geschichte der Einwohnerwehren in Preußen 1918–1921" [On the History of Citizens' Defense in Prussia 1918–1921]. Militaergeschichtliche Zeitschrift (in German). 9 (1): 15–60. doi:10.1524/mgzs.1971.9.1.15.
  2. ^ a b c Sammartino, Annemarie (3 March 2021). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). "Paramilitary Violence". 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. doi:10.15463/ie1418.10398/1.2. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  3. ^ Schumann, Dirk (8 October 2014). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). "Post-war Societies (Germany)". 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
  4. ^ Mommsen, Hans (1996). The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy. Translated by Forster, Elborg; Jones, Larry Eugene. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-807-82249-4.
  5. ^ Wilson, Tim (2010). Frontiers of Violence. Conflict and Identity in Ulster and Upper Silesia 1918-1922. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-199-58371-3.
  6. ^ a b c Scriba, Arnulf (1 September 2014). "Freikorps". Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  7. ^ Bucholtz, Mattheis (7 July 2017). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). "Freikorps". 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  8. ^ Jones, Nigel (2004). A brief history of the birth of the Nazis (Rev. & updated ed.). London: Robinson. p. 270. ISBN 1-84119-925-7. OCLC 224053608.
  9. ^ Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte. Volume 3 1964 [Journal of Military History. Volume 3 1964] (in German). Berlin: Deutscher Militärverlag. 1964. p. 33.
  10. ^ Thoß, Bruno (25 January 2024). "Einwohnerwehren, 1919–1921". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  11. ^ Asmuss, Burkhard (14 September 2014). "Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten" [The Steel Helmet, League of Front-Line Soldiers]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  12. ^ Leicht, Johannes (25 June 2015). "Der Deutschvölkische Schutz- und Trutzbund" [German Nationalist Protection and Defiance Federation]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  13. ^ "SA". Encyclopedia Britannica. 14 May 2024. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  14. ^ Zelnhefer, Siegfried (8 September 2021). "Deutscher Kampfbund, 1923". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  15. ^ "The Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold at a Mass Rally in Potsdam (October 26, 1924)". German History in Documents and Images (GHDI). Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  16. ^ "Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold". Geschichtswerkstatt in der SPD Schleswig-Holstein (in German). 26 May 2024. Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  17. ^ Elsbach, Sebastian (2 April 2019). "Die Eiserne Front" [The Iron Front]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2023.
  18. ^ "Jungdeutscher Orden, Bruderschaften Leer und Rheiderland" [Young German Order, Leer and Rheiderland Brotherhoods]. Archivportal-D (in German). 27 January 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2024.
  19. ^ Asmuss, Burkhard (8 June 2011). "Der Rote Frontkämpferbund" [The Red Front Fighters' League]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  20. ^ Kater, Michael H. (2004). "Make Way, You Old Ones!". Hitler Youth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 7.
  21. ^ Mühldorfer, Friedbert (27 April 1922). "Kampfbund gegen den Faschismus, 1930–1933". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 24 July 2024.
  22. ^ Pieroth, Stephan (1994). Parteien und Presse in Rheinland-Pfalz 1945–1971: ein Beitrag zur Mediengeschichte unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Mainzer SPD-Zeitung 'Die Freiheit' [Political Party and Press in Rhineland-Palatinate 1945–1971: A Contribution to Media History with Special Consideration of the Mainz SPD Newspaper 'Die Freiheit'] (in German). Mainz: v. Hase & Koehler Verlag. p. 96. ISBN 978-3-775-81326-6.
  23. ^ "Kämpfe der "Roten Ruhrarmee"" [Battles of the "Ruhr Red Army"]. Bundesarchiv (in German). Retrieved 24 July 2024.
  24. ^ Rübner, Hartmut. "Freiheit und Brot. 11. Der Anarchosyndikalismus als soziokulturelle Bewegung abseits gewerkschaftlicher Zusammenhänge" [Freedom and Bread. 11. Anarcho-syndicalism as a Socio-cultural Movement outside of Trade Union Context]. Datenbank des deutschsprachigen Anarchismus (in German). Retrieved 2024-07-24.

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Waite, Robert G. L. (1952) Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Postwar Germany 1918-1923, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
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